ADDITION TO THE MACRO FUNGI OF TIKRI RESERVED FOREST, GONDA (U.P.) INDIA

EXTENDED ABSTRACT

 Tikri Reserved Forest of Eastern Uttar Pradesh situated in Tarabganj sub-division of Gonda district (U.P.) lying at 26°20′06″N latitude and on 82°15′40″E longitude. It is spread over an area of 70 km² which is characterized by typical terai landscape. This area is very rich in vegetation with Sal (Shorea robusta) and Teak forests (Tectona grandis) as the main tree species. It also harbours  a  rich  diversity  of  economical  and  medicinal  plant  species,  mainly  confined  to  the peripheral region of the forest.  Along with affluent flora, the reserve forest is also endowed with many mammalian fauna. To explore the mushroom flora of this Forest, various field surveys were conducted during the monsoon period of the years 2016 – 2019, in which a total of fifty three mushroom species belonging to thirty seven genera were collected and identified from different localities of the reserved forest so far  (Table.1, Plate.1).  

In the field, mature and well developed fruit bodies are being collected carefully. The macroscopic features of the fruiting bodies (e.g. shape, size and colour of sporophore) were noted in the field while the microscopic features (e.g. spore shape) were noted in laboratory. Various ecological parameters have also been recorded along with other field data such as habit, habitat etc. Well developed fruit bodies have been photographed. The collections were then wrapped in waxed paper and brought to the laboratory for further study. The morphotaxonomic features of Arora (1986), Singer (1986) and www.mushroomexpert.com were mainly followed. 

 
The majority of the species were saprophytic in nature, while parasitic and symbiotic were also recorded. Among them Termitomyces  globulus,  T. heimii, T. microcapus, Russula delica. R. nobilis,  R. senecis, Marasmius haematocephalus, M. siccus and Xylaria sp. were frequent  mushroom species while Amanita sp., Auricularia sp., Calvatia sp., Coprinus comatus, C. cinereus, Daldinia concentrica, Dacryopinax sp., Ganoderma  applanatum, G. lucidum, Geastrum saccatum, Laccaria sp., Lepiota sp., Lentinus sp., Leucoagaricus sp.,  Leucocoprinus medioflavus, L. cepaestipes ,L. cretaceous, Lycoperdon sp., Mutinus caninus, Mycena sp., Panaeolus sp., Phallus indusiatus,  Podoscypha petalodes, Ramaria sp., Scleroderma sp., Schizophyllum commune, Tricholoma giganteum, Volvariella bombycina, V. volvacea,  Tulostoma brumale were occasionally found. Boletus sp. and Pleurotus cystidiosus were rarely found. These species were recorded during the year 2016-2018 (Siddhant et al., 2019 a). In the early monsoon of the year 2019, three new mushroom species viz., Astraeus hygrometricus, Conocybe sp., Chantharellus subalbidus were collected from the selective localities of the reserved forest (Siddhant et al., 2019 b) while in the late monsoon, a total of nine mushroom species viz., Chlorophyllum brunneum, Laccaria fraternal, Macrolepiota procera, Marasmius curreyi, M. epiphyllus, Parasola plicatilis, Termitomyces fuliginosus, Volvariella pusilla and Xylaria polymorpha have been identified on the basis of their taxonomical characters. The mushroom species were greater in number in the month of August and September during 2016-2019 while lesser number of species were noticed in the month of July. The greater relative humidity, more rain fall and moderate temperature range probably accounted for more fructification and hence appearance of greater number of species in those months. Agaricales were predominant order comprised 13 families followed by Polyporales and Bolatales which consisted 3 families each. Auriculariales, Cantharellales, Dacrymycetales, Geastrales, Gomphales, Phallales, Russulales and Xylariales comprising of one family each. Most of the genera belonged to order Agaricales (84%) followed by Polyporales and Bolatales (12% each) and Phallales and Xylariales (8% each). The least gerena were recorded for the order Auriculariales, Cantharellales, Dacrymycetales, Geastrales, Russulales and Gomphales (4% each). Amongst different families of Agaricales, Agaricaceae consisted higher number of Genera (9) followed by Bolbitiaceae with two genera. Rest of the families viz., Amanitaceae, Hydnangiaceae, Lyophyllaceae, Marasmiaceae, Mycenaceae, Pleurotaceae, Psathyrellaceae, Schizophyllaceae and Tricholomataceae contained one genera each. The species, recorded during observation were found growing on different types of substrates. These were grouped into: (a) Species growing on soil or humus, (b) Species growing on wood, (c) Species growing on partially decomposed leaf litter, (d) Species growing in and around termite nests, and (e) Species growing on dung. Greater number of species was recorded from the soil (23) followed by wood (17), partially decomposed leaf litter (8) and termite nest (4). The dung harboured a single mushroom species. Few mushroom species such as Leucocoprinus medioflavus and Volvariella volvacea showed duel habitat. They were found on both wood and the soil. Amongst species growing in association of different types of substrates, the Agaricales were recorded from all the substrate types. In contrast, Cantharellales, Phallales and Russulales were recorded only from the soil. The Auriculariales, Dacrymycetales, Gomphales and Polyporales, on other hand, were recorded only from the wood substrate. On the basis of utility of species in different forms these were grouped into: (a) Edible, (b) Inedible, (c) Medicinal, (d) Worthless and (e) Poisonous. Indigenous characterization of wild mushrooms has revealed only 06 mushroom species viz., Termitomyces globules, T. heimii, T. microcarpus, T. fuliginosus, Macrolepiota procera and Astraeus hygrometricus which were used by locals as food purposes. Some of them (Astraeus hygrometricus, Termitomyces heimii and Macrolepiota procera) were also being sold in local market as a source of income (Fig.1). 

 

Fig. 1: Wild edible mushrooms of the study area: People selling Macrolepiota procera in Nawabganj (A) and Faizabad market (B), Collection of Termitomyces fuliginosus (C) and Astraeus hygrometricus (D) from forest by local for food.

 

Simple morphological forms such as colour, shape and their association were the key features for indigenous characterization. Local names were also found to be an important element when distinguishing edible mushrooms from other.  Conventional characterization of the wild mushrooms was performed by observing different features including cap colour, cap surface texture, gills/tubes and latex, spore print, fruiting body fleshiness, ecological classification. Through the conventional characterization, 18 species of wild mushrooms were found to be edible, 10 inedible, 3 poisonous, 3 medicinal and 12 of unknown edibility. Seven mushroom species were established as worthless due to their miniscule size. The edible species have been considered good in respect of their edibility. These species were: Astraeus hygrometricus, Auricularia sp., Calvatia sp., Chantharellus subalbidus, Coprinus comatus, Lentinus sp., Leucoagaricus sp., Macrolepiota procera, Phallus indusiatus, Pleurotus cystidiosus, Russula delica, R. nobilis, R. Senecis, Termitomyces fuliginosus, T. globules, T. heimii, T. Microcarpus, Tricholoma giganteum and V. Volvacea. The inedible species were not considered utilizable in form of food in spite of larger and fleshy sporocarp while few were hard and stiff in texture. These species were: Chlorophyllum brunneum, Daldinia concentric, Geastrum saccatum, Mutinus caninus, Panaeolus sp, Podoscypha petalodes, Tulostoma brumale, Volvariella bombycina, Xylaria polymorpha, Xylaria sp. The medicinal species were those whose medicinal properties have already been explored. This category of species includes: Ganoderma applanatum, G. Lucidum and Schizophyllum commune. The poisonous species were Amanita sp. Leucocoprinus medioflavus and Scleroderma sp. The worthless species included: Coprinus cinereus, Conocybe sp., Marasmius curreyi, M. epiphyllus, M. haematocephalus, M. siccus and Parasola plicatilis. Although some wild mushrooms such as Calvatia sp., Pleurotus cystidiosus, Russula sp., Tricholoma giganteum and Volvariella volvacea are edible, these were not consumed by local inhabitants because of unawareness in respect of edible nature of these mushrooms. There is also a scope of availability of better strain of mushroom whose germplasm may be collected and used in breeding experiments to improve the variety of mushrooms. Many edible (Macrolepiota procera, Volvariella volvacea, Pleurotus cystidiosus and Tricholoma giganteum) and medicinal (Ganoderma applanatum, G. Lucidum) mushrooms species which are unpopular among the local mushroom growers, are yet to be explored for their commercial cultivation in this part of the country. As the Tikri Reserved Forest is spread over a very large area, more surveys are needed over an extended period in order to explore entire mushroom flora with special reference to edible mushrooms. Overall, the findings of this study will be a reference database of wild mushroom of the Tikri reserved forest and their ethnomycological aspects which will help in future research works. (Link)

 

 

Fig.1 Wild mushrooms of Tikri Reserved Forest. 1. Astraeus hygrometicus; 2. Auricularia sp.; 3. Calvatia sp.; 4. Conocybe sp.; 5.  Chlorophyllum brunneum; 6. Dacropinax sp.;  7. Daldinia concentrica; 8. Ganoderma lucidum; 9. Geastrum saccatum; 10. Lentinus sp.; 11. Leucocoprinus cretaceous.; 12. L. medioflavus; 13. Macrolepiota procera; 14. Marasmius haematocephalus; 15. M. siccus; 16. Mutinus caninus; 17. Panaeolus sp.; 18. Pleurotus cystidiosus;  19. Podoscypha petalodes, 20.  Russula delica; 21.  R. nobilis; 22. R. senecis; 23. Schizophyllum commune; 24. Scleroderma sp. 25. Termitomyces  microcarpus; 26. T. fuliginosus; 27. Volvariella bombycina; 28. V. volvacia;  29. Xylaria sp.; 30.  X. polymorpha.

Reference:

1)     Arora, D. (1986): Mushroom Demystified: A comprehensive guide to the fleshy fungi. Berkeley, CA: Ten Speed Press.

2)     Siddhant, Walakulu Gamage and Mahesh Kumar (2019a): Diversity of macro fungi in Tikri Reserved forest of Gonda district, Uttar Pradesh^.  Proceeding of National symposium on Trends & innovation in mushroom production technologies, diversification, processing & consumption organized by HAIC Agro R&D Centre, Murthal (Haryana). January 31-February 2, 2019. p.30.

3)     Siddhant, P.O. Ukaogo, Nidhi Singh and Mahesh Kumar (2019b):  An addition to the diversity of macro fungi in Tikri Reserved Forest, Gonda (U.P.) India. 11^th Annual Scientific Conference on The role of Fungi in the Petroleum, Agro-allied and Pharmaceutical Industries organized by Mycological Society of Nigeria, Nigeria. October 06-09, 2019. P. 57.

4)     Singer, R. (1986): The Agaricales in Modern Taxonomy 4^th Ed. Bishan Singh Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehradun.    

      Cited this as: Siddhant, Ruchira Singh, Mahesh Kumar and R.S. Kanaujia (2020): Addition to the macro fungi of Tikri Reserved Forest, Gonda (U.P.) India. Proceeding of National Web Conference on “Mushroom Production: Recent Advances and Strategies for Successful & Sustainable Trade".  Banda (U.P.) India. October 5-6, 2020. BUAT Publication No. BUAT (P)-1/2021. :pp 54-65.

 

 

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मेरी कलम 00:46  No comment

ESTIMATION OF RISK CAUSED BY INTAKE OF TRACE METAL THROUGH CONSUMPTION OF WILD EDIBLE MUSHROOMS COLLECTED AROUND AUTOMOBILE VILLAGE IN ABIA STATE

   Despite the benefits of mushroom consumption, the bioaccumulation of trace metals in mushrooms can endanger consumer’s health. The consumption of mushrooms in South Eastern Nigeria has received less attention. Seven edible mushroom species (Auricular auricular judae, Lentinus squarrosulus, Pleurotus pulmonarius, Pleurotus ostreatus, Termitomyces microcarpus, Termitomyces robusta and Volvariella volvacea) and their respective substrate samples, collected from Ohiya mechanic village in Abia central senatorial zone of the South-eastern Nigeria were investigated for the presence of five heavy metals (Cd, Pb, Fe, Hg, As). Apart from this, the heavy metals associated health risks were also analyzed for the consumers by evaluating estimated weekly intake (EWI), non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic health risks to ALC and HLC. A total of 21 fruiting bodies (3 specimens for each species) and the corresponding substrates (n = 21) were collected randomly. The results showed that all the mushrooms showed almost same bioconcentration factors, although their metal contents varied among themselves. The magnitude of heavy metals in mushroom fruit bodies tends to increase with an increase of the metals in the substrate. Elevated concentration of heavy metals was observed in those mushroom species collected from highly contaminated substrate. Amomg the heavy metals, iron showed highest mean concentration in the mushroom fruit bodies (85.86±2.39 mg/kg) while least value was recorded for mercury (0.018 mg/kg). Overall, the trace metal contents showed a descending pattern of Fe > Pb > Cd> As > Hg both for mushrooms and their respective substrates. The estimated weekly intake (EWI) values of heavy metals were all lower than provisional tolerable weekly intakes (PTWIs) except for Fe. The highest weekly intake was calculated for Fe, while the lowest value was recorded for Hg. The hazard index (HI), ranged from 1.36-3.59, revealed possibility of  adverse health effects on the long term due to the excessive consumption of contaminated wild mushrooms.  

 

Cited this as:   Ukaogo PO, Siddhant, Ajong AB and CT Ukaogo  (2020): Estimation of risk caused by intake of trace metal through consumption of wild edible mushrooms collected around automobile village in Abia State. International Euroasia Congress on Scientific Researches and Recent Trends-VII,  organized by Baku Eurasian University, Baku, Azerbaijan on December 7-8, 2020. In: Abstract book edited by Ulzar Ibrahimova and Merve Kidiryüz. p 273.

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मेरी कलम 07:07  No comment

Determination of the Paper Quality as a Substrate for Oyster Mushroom Cultivation

Pleurotus sp. is well known commercially cultivated white rot fungus. It is capable of utilizing a wide
range of agro-wastes such as Artichoke waste, Banana leaves and pseudostem, Barley straw, Brassica-haulms, Cinnamon leaves, Coffee sawdust, Corncobs, Cotton wastes, Groundnut shells, Oat straw, Rice straw, Soybean stems, Sugarcane bagasse, Wheat straw, wood waste etc. These substrates are rich in cellulose, hemicelluloses and lignin content. To utilize these substrates mycelium of Pleurotus sp. has to secrete extracellular enzymes complex that could depolymerised these polymers. This complex includes the oxidative enzymes laccase  and manganese peroxidase , which is involved in lignin degradation, and the hydrolytic enzymes xylanase and cellulase, which are involved in hemicellulose and cellulose degradation, respectively. According to our previous findings, beside plant wastes, Pleurotus sp. is capable of utilizing the substrate from animal and fungal origin. Apart from this, few industrial wastes viz., pulp and paper mill effluent, baby diapers, oxo-biodegradable plastic waste  etc. have also been utilized by this mushroom. A number of these waste have been employed as feedstock in solid state fermentation (SSF) processes using higher Basidiomycetus fungi for the production of mushroom food which offers an alternative for developing unconventional source of proteins. Among the aforesaid substrates, agro-wastes are the most extensively used substrate for small scale/commercial cultivation of edible mushrooms. The availability of these agro-wastes are limited in the big cities, therefore, people are unable to grow their own mushrooms. They depend on malls, vegetable stores etc for their mushroom requirements. Waste paper, on other hand, is an accessible cellulosic waste that provides carbon source to mushroom and promotes their cultivation in such areas. However, it is necessary to analyse the safety aspects of using these waste papers for mushroom cultivation before recommending it for consumption especially when printed paper waste is used as substrate because mushrooms are well known for their ability to bioaccumulate the toxic substances in their carpophores. A lot of work has been done on news papers either as a master substrate  or as a supplement  for oyster mushroom production. Work on other paper type is less documented. In present communication, Eight different kinds of papers, viz., glaze paper, brown paper, news paper, magazine paper, chart paper, kite paper, rough copy paper and A-4 size printing paper and two types of cardboards viz., corrugated cardboard and card board were evaluated for different manifestations of white oyster mushroom Pleurotus florida Strain-P1.

The results regarding various parameters of mushroom production are summarized in Tables 1-3 and
Figs. 1-2.
Vegetative and fruit development phase: The mushroom was utilized all the substrates for their growth and sporophore formation. The compact mass of whitish and cottony growth was formed in all the substrates due to complete impregnation of mycelium. Mycelial ramification was comparatively more condensed and vigorous in case of Magazine paper, brown paper and in both kind of cardboard over control. The glaze paper and kite paper showed poor mycelia run. Especially, in case of kite paper, not all of the waste paper area was covered by the hyphae. On the contrary, some areas were entirely devoid of the mycelium. Majority of substrates took almost equal time for spawn run primordial development and fruit bodies’ maturation. The fastest mycelia development (21 days), primordial development (25 days) and fruit body formation (31 days) were realized with brown paper while kite paper took maximum time for aforesaid manifestations (28, 34 and 40 days). 

Yield and biological efficiency of mushroom: The yield parameters such as yield and biological efficiency varied among themselves. The crop of mushroom was harvested in three flushes where yield and biological efficiency ranged between 190-495 gm, 38-99% with significant difference (P=0.05) among substrates. Magazine paper (450 gm; 90%) and card board (495 gm; 99%) produced significant (P=0.05) yield and biological efficiency over control (Table 1). They also showed highest percentage yield increase over others (Table 2). Rest of the substrates showed significant reduction in yield. The percentage contribution in yield of different substrates was also evaluated. Among the substrates, card board contributed 14 % of total mushroom production followed by magazine paper (13%) and news paper (12%) (Fig. 1). Overall, in our investigation, oyster mushroom showed healthy biological efficiency on paper and cardboard substrates.

Number and average weight of sporocarp: The average number of fruit bodies harvested varied among the substrates ranged between 23-64 sporocarps/bag. Majority of substrates showed significant reduction over control in terms of number of sporocarp produced. Only Magazine paper and cardboard produced significant number of mushroom fruit bodies of 56 and 64, respectively which were at par to each other. The average weight per sporocarp ranged 7.73-10.29 gm for different treatments. A significant reduction in mushroom weight was observed in magazine paper (8.04 gm), brown paper (8.24 gm) and chart paper (8.26) over control. The Rough copy paper (8.94 gm), glaze paper (9.83 gm), A-4 size printing paper (9.67 gm) and kite paper (9.00 gm) were statistically similar with control. Only
corrugated cardboard (10.29 gm) was found significant in terms of average weight per sporocarp.

Pleurotus sp. synthesizes extracellular enzymes during their growth on lignocellulosic materials. This enzyme complex depolymerised these polymers in to small water soluble sugars which can be processed by mushrooms. Because of papers and cardboards are biosynthetically composed of cellulose, hemicelluloses and lignin components, the Pleurotus utilized these substrates for their mycelial growth and fruit bodies formation. This finding is supported by Florian  who reported growth and development of fungal species on the objects of cultural heritage made of or supported on paper which is supported by their enzymatic action that cause biodegradation of paper. Apart from enzymes, organic acids are excreted by fungi, which cause a gradual loss of mechanical strength in paper. In addition, physical and chemical forms of cellulose, present in a paper sheet, influence the bioreceptivity of paper. The native cellulose is mainly crystalline with some amorphous sites, whereas the cellulose present in a paper sheet, by having already undergone physical and chemical processing, contains a larger number of amorphous sites along the polymer. These sites are more susceptible to biodeterioration and therefore have a higher bioreceptivity for cellulolytic microorganism. Comparatively more condensed and vigorous growth of mycelia in case of magazine paper, brown paper, and both kind of cardboards was probably due to this reason. The poor mycelia growth in glaze paper is probably due to coating of the paper which might be toxic to mushroom mycelium and therefore, inhibit the colonization and growth of the oyster mushroom mycelium while poor absorption kinetic in kite paper might be due to its light weight.

The mushrooms gave satisfactory yield and biological efficiency on every paper and cardboard substrates which also attributed to the wide range of cellulose and hemicellulose in this substrate. These values are higher than reported from many unconventional lignocellulosic plant wastes . It is in conformity of Mandeel et al.,  who reported Oyster cultivation on shredded office paper and cardboard yielded more edible sporophore biomass than other lignocellulosic residues. Earlier, Yildiz et al., found the mixture of wheat straw and waste paper (1:1 w/w) as best substrate combination for mushroom production, respectively. They also stated that the mixtures which involve waste paper generally produced higher yield values when compared to the other combinations. Girmay et al., recommended paper waste as suitable substrates for the cultivation of oyster mushroom. Amongst the paper and cardboard wastes, cardboard produced most significant yield and biological efficiency and ranked top in this investigation. This was due to the fact that cardboard is rich in celluloses and lignocelluloses and includes minor portions of starch. Earlier, Owaid et al.,  found best significant (P<0.05) yield of Pleurotus ostreatus on cardboard substrate. Philippoussis  summarized earlier work on the biological efficiency of Pleurotus ostreatus and P. pulmonarius on various substrates. The value reported from cardboard was quite higher than those of other substrate. 

The overall results in present study concluded that use of paper and cardboard is much efficient in oyster mushroom cultivation. These results are not only useful for mews houses, semi-houses and flatlet houses dwellers but also waste management faculties who wish to cultivate mushrooms and riddance of the paper and card board waste at the same time. 

 

Cite this as  Siddhant, O.P. Ukaogo, S.S. Walakulu Gamage, Ruchira Singh and Mahesh Kumar (2020). Determination of the paper quality as a substrate for oyster mushroom cultivation. In: Dr. Afroz Alam (ed.) Modern Research in Botany. Book Publisher International, West Bengal and United Kingdom.  pp. 117-125.

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मेरी कलम 17:00  No comment

An Approach to Improve Yield Parameters of Pleurotus florida Strain P1

Aim: The efficient mushroom production involves many factors of which spawn production, culture methods and substrate selection are of prime importance. The research has, therefore, been carried out to standardize these aspects in present communication, for production of Pleurotus florida Strain- P1.

Materials and Methods: Various cereals (maize, oat, barley) and millets (Italian millets, Little millet, Pearl millet) were assessed against wheat grain spawn for enhancing yield and biological efficiency of mushroom. Most suitable wheat straw component among fine pieces of leaves and leaf sheath (0.2 cm), coarse pieces of leaves and leaf sheath (0.4 cm), small (1.0 cm) and large pieces of the stem (1.7 cm) were also evaluated for the manifestations above. Various culture methods viz., bag, column, wall and tray culture and few substrate mixtures (corncob + wheat straw, mango sawdust + wheat straw and rice husk + wheat straw) have also been taken to increase yield performance of mushroom.

 

Conclusion: The results obtained during the study revealed that by adopting the compositeapproach, the growers enhance mushroom production in manyfolds. The mushroom is cultivated byfollowing column method. The wheat straw devoid from pieces of leaf & leaf sheath should be utilized as a substrate with corncob combination. It should be inoculated with oat/barley spawn to achieve

higher yield.(Link)

Cited this as:   C.S. Singh, Siddhant, Ruchira Singh and R.S. Kanaujia  (2020). Integrated approach to improve yield parameters of Pleurotus florida Strain P1. In: Makky EA (ed.) Recent Progress in Microbiology and Biotechnology Vol.2. Book Publisher International, West Bengal and United Kingdom. pp. 94-105.

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मेरी कलम 06:46  No comment